Changes in the Outdoor Lighting and Crime, Part 1: ------------- 2002-11-22 Changed the Version date. (There are enough changes to justify a change.) Changed Fisher (1977) to (1997). Added to the reference list: Painter (1990) Lewis and Sullivan (1979). Taylor (1998) Witte and Witt (2000) Fixed years in: Vermeulen (1991) > (1992) page 50 SOCRU (2000) > (2002) page 51 Removed all mention of SA (1997) and SA (1999). They were only in the Acknowledgements. ------------- 2002-11-23: No text changes by the author. Just some typesetting ones, replaced the partly corrupt html file and the a5 brochures with printing instructions (Acroread options to produce a PostScript file had to have ``fit to page'' UNchecked(!), apart from chosing A5 paper in Page Setup, to get a proper output from pstops. Sorry for inconvenice I caused maybe you this Saturday morning.) An A4 hypertext pdf put here instead of an A5 one, a html tree with 18 nodes added. (Jenik Hollan, webmaster) ------------- 2002-11-26: Changes to `Outdoor lighting and crime' version 2002-11-22 New version is 2002-11-26 Below are sections of the original text with changes described. ~~~~~~~~~~~ 2.1 Aspects of Scientific Method Early explanations of natural phenomena and human behaviour were derived by the method of intuition (eg ancient concept of Earth as the centre of the universe) or the method of authority (eg bishop announced date of creation as 4004 BC). These methods (eg Martin 2002) of trying to increase knowledge have been superseded by scientific method in the last four centuries, which is not to say that intuition and standing have no place in scientific progress. The reference `Martin 2002' is now `Martinez-Papponi 2000'. ~~~~~~~~~~~~ 7.3.1 Relevance to lighting and crime The literature on CCTV surveillance is extensive. The technical literature on the optics, electronics and displays is fine for engineers. The literature on the use of CCTV for crime deterrence and detection sometimes gives the impression that even basic concepts of the technology are not well understood. Unfortunately this often appears to impact on the value of reports on the effectiveness of CCTV. This section is a review of papers that were readily available and appeared to have something of possible relevance to the main subject of this document. Closed circuit television (CCTV) appeared to have an initial beneficial effect in reducing car theft in car parks but the evidence for sustained effects was equivocal (Tilley 1993). Brown (1995) was more optimistic, although this judgement was qualified by evidence that crime was merely displaced to areas out of camera range. CCTV appeared to be ineffective according to KDIS (1997). Sherman et al. (1997, Chapters 7 and 10) concluded that CCTV was of limited value. In the Bexley (UK) crime study, it was not possible to demonstrate any statistically reliable deterrent effect of CCTV. The authors were only able to say that CCTV was thought to have some value for providing prosecution evidence (Pascoe and Harrington-Lynn 1998). As the reference `KDIS (1997)' is no longer available, the sentence `CCTV appeared to be ineffective according to KDIS (1997)' has now been removed. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Given the widespread belief that increased lighting will prevent crime, municipal officers who select areas for relighting might reasonably be expected to favour areas with increased crime instead of deciding purely on the basis of electrical or visibility criteria. Police advice may be sought or proffered^xx (eg Rae 2001). Local officials may be reluctant to state the strategy publicly as tantamount to labelling identifiable areas as crime-prone, but politicians seem to be less inhibited, especially during election campaigns. Any such bias in the relighting process tends to result in a confirmatory bias in the results of any subsequent investigation into the efficacy of relighting for crime prevention. The process therefore has a net positive feedback, which encourages its continuation. All before-after lighting and crime experiments without time-series spatial observations and analysis of ambient light as well as crime should now be regarded as suspect if not invalid. The methods used to date demonstrate how not to study the relationships between street lighting and crime, regardless of the number of crime measures and the quality of statistical analysis applied. 4. SPECIFIC Problems with the evidence As the reference `Rae 2001' is no longer posted on the Net, it has been removed. The footnote number that preceded it is unchanged. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Below are original and revised versions of references. Most of the changes are contractions of URLs to the home addresses. ABS (2001) Crime and justice. Crimes recorded by police. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/ABS@nsf/ URL contracted and note added: ABS (2001) Crime and justice. Crimes recorded by police. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.abs.gov.au/ (Note: A fee may be charged.) ~~~~~~~~~~~ KDIS (1997) The failure of public CCTV systems in Airedale (a presentation given to the Shipley East Labour Party, 1997-10-08, by the 1 in 12 Club). http://www.kdis.legend.org.uk/cctv/failure.html http://www.voltscommissar.net/lp40.htm Deleted as no longer available on the Net. ~~~~~~~~~~~ New reference added: Fleming, R., and Burrows, J. (1986) The case for lighting as a means of preventing crime. Home Office Research Bulletin 22. London: Home Office, Research and Planning Unit. (Not seen, cited by Eck (2002).) ~~~~~~~~~~~~ Martin, B. L. (2002) Scientific Method. http://www.unm.edu/~bmartin/conduct.html Name and year corrected and URL changed: Martinez-Papponi, B. L. (2000) Scientific Method. http://www.unm.edu/~bmartin/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Nair, G., Ditton, J. and Phillips, S. (1993) Environmental improvements and the fear of crime: the sad case of the `Pond' area in Glasgow. British Journal of Criminology, 33(4), 555-561. (Abstract only seen at http://www.scotcrim.u-net.com/researchf10.htm .) Changed to: Nair, G., Ditton, J. and Phillips, S. (1993) Environmental improvements and the fear of crime: the sad case of the `Pond' area in Glasgow. British Journal of Criminology, 33(4), 555-561. (Abstract at http://www.scotcrim.u-net.com/researchf10.htm .) ~~~~~~~~~~ NCJRS (1999) 1999 report series, Juvenile Justice Bulletin: violence after school. National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Washington, DC: Department of Justice. http://www.ncjrs.org/htm/ojjdp/9911_1/viol.html Changed to: NCJRS (1999) Violence after school. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 1999 report series. NCJ 178992, National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Washington, DC: Department of Justice. http://www.ncjrs.org/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ONS (2000) Crime and justice. Notifiable offences recorded by the police. Ch 9 in Social Trends Pocketbook 2000. London: Office of National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/themes/compendia_reference/downloads/soci al_trends/crime_justice.pdf Changed to: ONS (2000) Crime and justice. Notifiable offences recorded by the police. Ch 9 in Social Trends Pocketbook 2000. London: Office of National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ Painter, K. A. and Farrington, D. P. (1999b) Improved street lighting: crime reducing effects and cost-benefit analyses. Security Journal, 12(4), 17-32. (Abstract at http://www.perpetuitypress.com/acatalog/Perpetuity_Press_Security_Jour nal_3.html ) Note and URL deleted: Painter, K. A. and Farrington, D. P. (1999b) Improved street lighting: crime reducing effects and cost-benefit analyses. Security Journal, 12(4), 17-32. ~~~~~~~~~~~~ Pease, K. (1998) Lighting and crime: Summary. Rugby, UK: Institution of Lighting Engineers. http://www.ile.co.uk/documents/Lighting URL changed: Pease, K. (1998) Lighting and crime: Summary. Rugby, UK: Institution of Lighting Engineers. http://www.ile.co.uk/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Rae, W. (2001) Public performance report 2000-2001. Scotland: Dumfries and Galloway Police. http://www.dumfriesandgalloway.police.uk/reports/ppr2001/PPR.pdf Reference removed as no longer available on the Net. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Semmens, N. (1999) Working bibliography on fear of crime @ 29.07.99 (513 entries). Criminology Institute, Faculty of Law, Sheffield University, UK. http://usitweb.shef.ac.uk/~lwp98ncs/fearof.htm or http://usit.shef.ac.ac.uk/~lwp98ncs/BIBweb.htm Second URL deleted: Semmens, N. (1999) Working bibliography on fear of crime @ 29.07.99 (513 entries). Criminology Institute, Faculty of Law, Sheffield University, UK. http://usitweb.shef.ac.uk/~lwp98ncs/fearof.htm ~~~~~~~~~~ Tulloch, J., Lupton, D., Blood, W., Tulloch, M., Jennett, C. and Enders, M. (1998) Fear of crime. National Campaign against Violence and Crime. Canberra, ACT: Attorney General's Department, Commonwealth of Australia. http://www.ncp.gov.au/ncp/publications/pdf/no2_fullreport.pdf New URL substituted: Tulloch, J., Lupton, D., Blood, W., Tulloch, M., Jennett, C. and Enders, M. (1998) Fear of crime. National Campaign against Violence and Crime. Canberra, ACT: Attorney General's Department, Commonwealth of Australia. http://sgeag001web.ag.gov.au/www/ncpHome.nsf ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ UCR (1996) FBI press release for the 1995 FBI Uniform Crime Report. Washington, DC: Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr95prs.htm and p 205 of http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/crimeus/crimeus.htm URLs contracted/deleted: UCR (1996) FBI press release for the 1995 FBI Uniform Crime Report. Washington, DC: Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr95prs.htm ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ US Census Bureau (2002) New Jersey county selection map. State and County QuickFacts. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau. http://www.quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/maps/new_jersey_map.html URL contracted: US Census Bureau (2002) New Jersey county selection map. State and County QuickFacts. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau. http://www.quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ------------- 2002-11-27: just three typos in the URLs corrected: Obsolete ``www'' at the beginning of URL by ref. 115, Walker, J. (2002), and by ref. 112, US Census Bureau (2002) -- there the original full (now functional) URL has been restored. ref. 66, Martinez-Papponi, B. L. (2000), is restored to the original full path as well, with missing ``l'' added, http://www.unm.edu/~blmartin/conduct.html (was ~bmartin)